Leviticus 1 Chapter Introduction

Structure and Formatting

In Hebrew, this chapter begins with the word “And,” indicating a connection with the previous book (Exodus). This connection not only implies that the first five books of the Bible should be seen as a single unit, but it also situates Leviticus in the narrative setting of the book of Exodus, during the thirteenth month of the Israelite’s wandering in the wilderness of Sinai.

The first chapter of Leviticus is comprised of two hypothetical scenarios representing three variations of the burnt offering (1–17):

1. a livestock animal (2–13)

   1. a bovine (3–9)

   2. a sheep or goat (10–13)

2. a bird (14–17)

As such, the initial heading verse of each section begins with “If” and is followed by the prescribed steps of the sacrifice. Presumably, they are the same for each burnt offering, but more prescriptions are explicit for the first type of burnt offering, the bovine, probably because they are implied for the other two possible burnt offerings. The steps of the sacrificial process for burnt offerings are:

1. Selecting a perfect, unblemished, and otherwise completely healthy animal (1:3–14)

2. Presenting the animal at the entrance to the tent of meeting (1:3)

3. Laying hands on the head of the animal (1:4)

4. Killing the animal (1:5–15)

5. Presenting and sprinkling the animal’s blood on the altar (1:5–15)

6. Skinning the animal (1:6)

7. Butchering the animal into its appropriate pieces, usually the head, fat, intestines, and legs (1:6–17)

8. Putting fire on the altar and arranging the wood (1:7)

9. Arranging the pieces, specifically the head and the fat, of the sacrifice over the burning wood of the altar (1:8–12)

10. Washing the legs and the intestines (1:9–13)

11. Burning the entire animal in a way that causes smoke to go up (1:9–17)

Religious and Cultural Concepts in This Chapter

Several concepts are crucial for understanding the laws in this chapter. They include: 1) technical sacrificial terminology, 2) atonement, 3) the importance of blood, and 4) the nature of ritual action.

Sacrificial terminology

Throughout the book of Leviticus, the author employs several terms that have a specialized technical meaning in the context of sacrifices or that are only used in this context. In this chapter, such terms are 1) the “burnt offering” and 2) the “gift.”

1. The burnt offering

The burnt offering was a particular sacrifice that could be offered by anyone for a variety of reasons. Its name is related to a verb that means “to go up” or “to ascend,” suggesting that the sacrifice was to be converted into smoke by the fire and ascend to Yahweh in heaven, as the discussion on the verb phrase “to cause to become smoke” will suggest. Its function was to provide a sacrifice intended to bring about forgiveness for a wide variety of sins and unintentional mistakes that were not specifically covered by the other sacrifices discussed in the first seven chapters of Leviticus. The sacrifice required a perfect male animal that would be completely burned on the altar over a fire that was to be kept burning continually. (See 6:9–13 for more details.) The sacrifice, when accepted by Yahweh, would provide atonement for the individual who offered it. See the book introduction for more information.

2. The gift or offering made by fire

The word translated as “gift” in 1:9, 1:13, 1:17 and throughout the book of Leviticus is variously translated in modern English versions, usually with reference to an offering made by fire, based on the word’s presumed relationship with the word for fire. However, some of the sacrifices referred to by this word are not burned on the altar (like the portions of the sacrifices that belonged to the priests in 7:30 and 7:35–36), and many sacrifices, such as the purification offering, that are burned on the altar are not referred to by this term. Instead, this term simply refers to a gift offered to Yahweh that consists of food items. While you may see the phrase “fire offering” or “offering made by fire” in modern English translations, we suggest that you retain translation of the word as “gift.”

Atonement

The word translated as “atone” in the ULT is a technical term expressing the act of atonement that was carried out by the priest but always accomplished by Yahweh. Traditionally, it has been understood as a metaphor with the basic meaning of “to cover,” but more recently, some scholars have understood it to express the image of “to wipe.” If the former is correct, then the metaphor pictures the blood of the sacrifice as covering up the defiling impurity caused by sin. If the latter is correct, then the metaphor pictures the blood of the animal as a sort of ritual detergent that cleanses the person or object from the defiling presence of sin’s impurity. Either way, the sacrifice offered by the priest on behalf of the individual or community is accepted in order to restore the relationship between the individual or community and Yahweh, a relationship that has been damaged or defiled because of sin. This is why so many of the laws concerning sacrifice end with the mention of the forgiveness of sins, which was the means by which the relationship with Yahweh could be restored.

The importance of blood

In Leviticus 1, the blood of the animal is collected and applied, via sprinkling or splattering, to the sides of the altar upon which the burnt offering is placed. (See 1:5–15.) This act, as explained above, has been variously understood, but it pictures the blood as cleansing the altar from the effects of sin. Blood was able to cleanse sacred space and God’s people from the impurities of sin because of its ability to accomplish atonement by means of the life of the animal. (See 17:10–12.) Because the blood contained the life of the animal, Yahweh forbade the eating of any animal blood. (See 7:26–27, 17:10–14, and 19:26.)

Ritual actions

Three actions in this chapter and throughout Leviticus are ritual in nature and picture important theological realities.

1. The language of “presenting” throughout this chapter means not only bringing the sacrifice to the altar or the priest but also displaying the sacrifice “to the face of Yahweh,” that is, to Yahweh himself. This expression pictures the reality that these sacrifices were performed in the presence of Yahweh, literally in the vicinity of the sacred area where Yahweh lived among the Israelites while they were in the wilderness.

2. This chapter features the ritual act of laying one’s hands on the head of the sacrificial animal. This action is linked to the acceptance of the animal as an appropriate sacrifice on the individual’s behalf. (See 1:4.) As a symbolic act, the laying on of hands identifies the individual with the animal he is offering. The implication seems to be that the person is ritually placing his sins on the sacrificial animal so that God will forgive the sins when the animal is sacrificed.

3. The language of “causing the sacrifice to become smoke on the altar” (see 1:9) pictures the sacrifice as being converted to smoke by the fire of the altar and arising to Yahweh in heaven, where he would smell the pleasant aroma of the burning sacrifice. As such, the pleasant smell was either a sign that Yahweh approved the sacrifice and would atone for the individual’s sins and forgive him, or it functioned as a necessary requirement for the acceptance of the individual’s offering.

Important Figures of Speech in This Chapter

This chapter includes three primary figures of speech that may prove difficult to translate but are important to understanding the chapter. These include 1) the phrase, “to the face of Yahweh,” 2) the phrase, “a pleasing smell to Yahweh,” and 3) the way of referring to the priests as “the sons of Aaron.”

“To the face of Yahweh”

Throughout this chapter and the book as a whole, the author of Leviticus uses the expression “to the face of Yahweh” to mean “where Yahweh sees” or “in the sight of Yahweh” or “in the presence of Yahweh,” so that “to the face of” is similar to the English preposition “before.” In this position, the person or object receives Yahweh’s attention, perspective, and judgment. In the context of Leviticus, being “to the face of Yahweh” means to be within the sacred area of the tent of meeting, either in the sense of the location directly in front of the tent in which Yahweh resided, or in the sense of being in the presence of Yahweh within the tent of meeting. (See 1:3–12.) You can translate either sense of this expression as “in the presence of Yahweh” or simply as “before Yahweh.”

“Pleasing smell to Yahweh”

As mentioned previously, throughout this chapter, the priest is instructed to “cause the sacrifice to become smoke on the altar.” This refers to burning the sacrifice in a way that causes smoke to go up, picturing the sacrifice as being converted to pleasant-smelling smoke by the fire and arising to Yahweh in heaven, where he would smell the smoke and be pleased. That the sacrifice was accompanied by the gift of the pleasant-smelling smoke of the sacrifice was apparently crucial to the acceptance of the offering as an appropriate sacrifice on the individual’s behalf, as it is mentioned several times in this chapter. (See 1:9–17.)

“The sons of Aaron”

Throughout Leviticus, but especially in this chapter, the priests are referred to by the expression “the sons of Aaron.” Occasionally, the expression is “the sons of Aaron, the priests” (as in 1:5–11). Once in this chapter, the expression is altered to emphasize that it is Aaron who is the original priest, through the phrase “the sons of Aaron the priest.” (See 1:7.) As the Introduction to Leviticus discusses, at the time when Yahweh spoke to Moses from the tent of meeting, the priests literally were the sons of Aaron, as it was Aaron who was the first high priest. But the instructions in the book also applied to future generations, when the term “sons” would be a way of referring to the priests as Aaron’s descendants (with the exception of Leviticus chapters 8–10). Here and throughout the book, if it would be clearer in your language, in your translation you could generally use the term “descendants,” which would apply to both the original priests and to their successors.

Other Possible Translation Difficulties in This Chapter

In addition to these important figures of speech, this chapter features several translation difficulties, including:

1. the unclear referent of pronouns

2. the switching between second and third-person address

3. the use of a verb and a related noun (cognate-accusatives)

4. the use of a future form to indicate a request or command

5. the use of specific, technical sacrificial language.

The unclear referent of pronouns

Throughout this chapter, the author of Leviticus uses a third-person pronoun to refer to both the individual who offers the sacrifice and to the priest who performs the sacrifice. As such, it is often difficult (but not impossible) to infer which party performs which actions. In general, the sacrifice is presented to the priest, but the individual who presents the sacrifice is responsible for killing, properly butchering, and presenting the portions of the sacrificial animal to the priest, who will then arrange them on the altar’s fire. The only exception to this pattern can be found in the instruction for offering a bird (1:14–17), which specifies that it is the priest who brings the bird to the altar (1:14) before, presumably, completing the preparation for its being burned on the altar as a burnt offering. The UST will indicate which party is the apparent referent of the pronoun.

Second and third-person address

Chapters 1 through 7 in their entirety are written as direct addresses to the people of God through Moses. As mentioned previously, Chapter 1 describes two hypothetical scenarios when an individual might offer three variations of the burnt offering. However, the form of the verb used to refer to the individual in this chapter varies in the second verse (1:2). Initially, Yahweh addresses “a man from you” in the third-person, but then switches to a second-person address (“you shall offer”) to indicate the imperatival force of the statement. The ensuing string of third-person verbs (1:3–17) carry the same imperatival weight as the initial second-person verb. Thus, because in this chapter the pronouns “his” and “he” refer to the person bringing an offering to Yahweh, they can be translated in the second person as is done in 1:2 and as modeled by the UST. The pronoun used to refer to the individual who offers the sacrifice switches as follows:

• Third-person: “When a man from you, when he presents” (1:2)

• Second-person: “you shall present” (1:2)

• Third-person: “If his offering” (1:3–17)

As previously discussed, if the switch from third-person forms to second-person and back would not be natural in your language, consider using either the second or third-person forms throughout. The UST models use of second-person forms for the entirety of this chapter, but the notes will often offer translation possibilities with third-person alternatives.

The use of a verb with a related noun (Cognate-accusatives)

For emphasis, the author of Leviticus often uses a verb with a related noun. In this chapter, the verb “to present” is related to the noun translated as “offering.” If your language can repeat words for emphasis, it would be appropriate in this context to repeat these words in a similar manner.

The use of specific, technical sacrificial terminology

See above the sections on “Sacrificial terminology” and “Ritual actions.” (See: atonement, atone, atoned and priest, priesthood)

Leviticus 2 Chapter Introduction

Structure and Formatting

This chapter gives instructions about how to make a grain offering. The “And” of 2:1 indicates that the laws of Leviticus 1 are continuing. Yahweh continues telling Moses how the people should offer sacrifices. In outline form, the structure of the chapter can be displayed as follows:

1. The grain offering (2:1–16)

   1. Offerings of raw flour (2:1–3)

   2. Offerings that are baked, pan-fried, or deep-fried (2:4–10)

   3. Laws regarding leaven, honey, and salt (2:11–13)

   4. Offerings of grains (2:14–16)

Religious and Cultural Concepts in This Chapter

This chapter introduces several key concepts that are relevant to proper translation, including the sacrifice of the grain offering, which includes the offering of flour, oil, and incense, the concept of the memorial portion, and the identification of yeast and leaven.

Grain offering

The grain offering was a specialized sacrifice consisting of an offering of harvested grain, usually wheat or barley. The grain offering sometimes accompanied the burnt offering. (See 14:20.) It is unclear whether the grain offering provided atonement by itself or whether it could only accomplish atonement when presented with the burnt offering or as a substitute for the purification offering for those who could not afford the animals required for that sacrifice. (See 5:11–13.) In any case, the grain offering could be offered dry (that is, not mixed with olive oil, 7:10) or mixed with olive oil, or it could be baked in an oven or prepared in a griddle or pan. If the offering of grain were something baked in an oven, the prescribed offering would consist of a loaf of unleavened bread that had been made by kneading the flour with olive oil, or a wafer that had been copiously covered in olive oil. (See 2:4.) Alternatively, grain offerings could be prepared by pan-frying the flour and olive oil on a griddle (2:5) or deep-frying the flour and olive oil in a pan (2:7). Furthermore, crushed portions of fresh grain that had been roasted with fire constituted an acceptable grain offering. (See 2:14–16.) A portion of the offering was crumbled and completely burned on the altar, resulting in pleasant-smelling smoke that rose to Yahweh in heaven. The remainder of the grain offering, however, belonged to the priests and the male descendants of Aaron for food. (See 2:3, 2:10, and 7:14–18.) See the Book Introduction for more information.

Flour

The term translated as “flour” in the ULT and “wheat flour” in the UST is the agricultural product made from the production of wheat grains. (See Exodus 29:2, and 2 Kings 7:16, where is it contrasted with barley.) However, according to some rabbinic sources, the precise commodity referred to in this chapter and elsewhere in Leviticus is the large chunks of crushed grains that remain in the sieve after the grains had been dried, winnowed, and crushed. Since flour would connote the fine powder that falls through the sieve, what remains is more accurately called “grits” or “semolina.” (See 1 Kings 5:2, where grits or semolina is contrasted with flour.) However, since this culinary term is not present in many cultures, the term “flour” has been retained. We suggest that you use in your translation whatever word your language has to describe the large chunks of crushed grains that remain in the sieve after the grains have been dried, winnowed, and crushed.

Oil

The term translated as “oil” in the ULT and “olive oil” in the UST refers to the agricultural product made from crushing large quantities of olives into a fine, smooth oil. This oil was used for cooking and baking. (See 2:4–7.) It provided fuel for lanterns. (See Exodus 35:8 and Exodus 35:14–15.) It also retained symbolic importance as a way of anointing and dedicating sacred objects, priests, and kings. (For sacred objects, see Genesis 28:18, for priests, see Exodus 29:7 and Leviticus 8:12, Leviticus 8:28–30, and Leviticus 21:10, and for kings, see 1 Samuel 10:1 and 1 Samuel 16:13.) In this chapter, in addition to being present in most of the grain offerings, olive oil was presented with the grain offering in whatever form it took.

Incense

Scholarly sources suggest that the substance that was burned in ritual spaces for its fragrance was an expensive fragrant gum resin tapped from three species of the Boswellia tree, native only to southern Arabia and Somaliland. (See Jeremiah 6:20.) The burning of this substance was required with all grain offerings, regardless of the manner of their preparation. Because both grain offerings and animal offerings provided a pleasing aroma to Yahweh, the addition of incense with grain offerings was to distinguish them from the animal sacrifices or burnt offerings. (See Chapter 1.) Whereas the olive oil was to be poured all over the grain offerings, the incense was to be placed on top of it, apparently in a large lump. Then the raw flour (or other kind of grain offering) would be mixed with the olive oil and the lump of incense in the priest’s hand as he took a large handful. (See 2:2.) These ingredients would then be completely burned on the altar and converted into pleasant-smelling smoke, which, when it went up to Yahweh, would please Yahweh and so mark the completion of an acceptable sacrifice.

The memorial portion

The memorial portion of the grain offering refers to the portion that the priest designates to be burned completely on the altar as a sacrifice to Yahweh, as opposed to the portion that will remain as food for the priests to eat. If the offering was raw flour, the priest would lift out a handful of the flour mixed with olive oil and all the incense that was placed on it. If the offering was baked, pan-fried, or deep-fried, the priest would take a portion and crumble it on the altar. These portions that were designated to be burned on the altar constituted the memorial portion. As such, by being completely burned on the altar, this portion represented the entire offering.

Yeast and leaven

In Leviticus 2, the word leaven refers to a lump of dough made from flour and other common ingredients, usually salt and oil, that contains a live leaven culture in the form of wild, natural yeast as its raising agent. The term yeast refers to the microscopic organism consisting of single oval cells that reproduce by budding and are capable of converting sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the ancient world, yeast was a common household raising agent used in the baking of bread. However, because store-bought, commercial yeast in the form of a dried, deactivated culture that is routinely added to individual batches of dough is a familiar, modern invention, the ULT has chosen the less anachronistic term “leaven culture.” This term reflects the slow process of growing wild, naturally occurring yeast from a single, small batch of dough, forming a leaven that would be added to other larger batches of dough. The wild yeast in the leaven would multiply and affect the rest of the larger batch of dough until the entire batch was considered to be leavened.

In Leviticus, grain offerings, whether baked or fried, that were made using “leaven” or included “leaven culture” were expressly forbidden to be burned on the altar, along with grain offerings made with honey. Instead, as Leviticus 2:12 expresses, grain offerings that included either “leaven culture” or “honey” could be offered as first fruit offerings that were not burned on the altar. Eating or baking with “leaven” was forbidden during the events of the first Passover in Egypt before the Exodus and, specifically, during the annual festival of Unleavened Bread. (See: Passover.) Yahweh informs Moses that the practice of excluding leaven and leaven culture from one’s diet should serve as a sign and memorial to the people of Israel that reminds them of God’s mighty acts of salvation in the Exodus and encourages them to obey his commandments. (See Exodus 13:5–10.) It should be noted that it was not always unlawful to eat food products made with leaven or leaven culture, but that the proscription only applied during special feasts and holidays associated with the Exodus.

Translation Issues in This Chapter

The number and person of pronouns

In the address to the Israelites, the author of Leviticus is known for abruptly switching the person, number, and occasionally the gender of pronouns and verbal forms that refer to the person offering sacrifices. In Leviticus 1, it was suggested that any third-person singular pronouns that refer to the worshiper (and not to the priest) could be changed to second-person plural pronouns, based on the nature of the direct address and the presence of a second-person plural pronoun in 1:2 and several times in the current chapter.

The pronouns referring to the worshiper switch person, gender, and number frequently. Verses 1–3 address the worshiper with a third-person singular pronoun. This switches to the second-person, singular pronoun in 2:4–8. The worshiper is addressed in the third person in verse 8, but verse 11 marks a shift to the second person, this time in the plural. The plural pronouns continue throughout verses 11 and 12, but the author of Leviticus switches back to the second-person singular from verse 13 to the end of the chapter.

1. Third-person (2:1–3)

• “ … when a person [third-person, feminine singular] presents … ” (2:1)

• “ … his [third-person, masculine singular] offering … ” (2:1)

• “ … and he [third-person, masculine singular] shall pour … ” (2:1)

• “ … and he [third-person, masculine singular] shall put … ” (2:1)

• “ … and he [third-person, masculine singular] shall bring … ” (2:2)

2. Second-person (2:4–8)

• “And if you [second-person, masculine singular] present … ” (2:4)

• “And if your [second-person, masculine singular] offering … ” (2:5)

• “Piece [second-person, singular imperative] it … ” (2:6)

• “ … and you [second-person, masculine singular] shall pour … ” (2:6)

• “And if your [second-person, masculine singular] offering … ” (2:7)

• “And you [second-person, masculine singular] shall bring … ” (2:8)

3. Third-person (2:8–10)

• “And he [third-person, masculine singular] shall present … ” (2:8)

4. Second-person (2:11–15)

• “Any grain offering that you [second-person, masculine plural] present … ” (2:11)

• “ … you [second-person, masculine plural] shall not cause to become smoke … ” (2:11)

• “You [second-person, masculine plural] shall present … ” (2:12)

• “ … your [second-person, masculine singular] grain offerings … ” (2:13)

• “ … you [second-person, masculine singular] shall salt … ” (2:13)

• “ … you [second-person, masculine singular] shall not omit … ” (2:13)

• “ … the covenant of your [second-person, masculine singular] God … ” (2:13)

• “ … your [second-person, masculine singular] offerings … ” (2:13)

• “ … you [second-person, masculine singular] shall present … ” (2:13)

• “And if you [second-person, masculine singular] present … ” (2:14)

• “ … you [second-person, masculine singular] shall present … ” (2:14)

• “ … your [second-person, masculine singular] first ripe grains … ” (2:14)

• “And you [second-person, masculine singular] shall put … ” (2:15)

• “ … and you [second-person, masculine singular] shall place … ” (2:15)

Leviticus 3 Chapter Introduction

Structure and Formatting

This chapter gives laws about how an Israelite might offer a peace offering. In a similar fashion to the burnt offerings described in Leviticus 1, here Yahweh provides laws for sacrifices of peace offerings consisting of a bovine, whether male or female (3:1–5), or a flock animal, whether a lamb (3:6–11) or a goat (3:12–16). The chapter ends with an enduring statute, applicable to any Israelite, regardless of age or location. This statute forbids consuming any fat or blood (3:17). In outline form, the structure of Chapter 3 is as follows:

1. The peace offering (3:1–17)

   1. Offering a bovine (3:1–5)

   2. Offering a flock animal (3:6–16)

   3. Proscription against eating blood or fat (3:17)

Religious and Cultural Concepts in This Chapter

Fat and the innards

In ancient times, the fat of an animal was considered the best part of the animal to eat. Therefore, certain fat portions of an animal that was sacrificed belonged exclusively to Yahweh. These were never to be eaten but rather were to be offered on the fire and converted into pleasant-smelling smoke that rose to Yahweh in heaven. The fat portions and internal organs that were to be removed for burning that are referred to in this chapter include:

• For bovine, sheep, and goats:

• the fat covering the innards. This refers to what is known as caul fat, or the thin layer of fat that covers over all of the internal organs in the abdomen of bovines and flock animals. (See in 3:3–14.)

• the fat that is on the innards. This refers to what is known as visceral fat, or the thick chunks of fat that are directly adhered to the internal organs, especially the stomach, liver, and kidneys. This specifically includes the fat that is connected to the two kidneys and the two kidneys themselves. (See 3:4–15.)

• the lobe on the liver. This refers to one of the four bunches of liver tissue on an animal’s liver, along with the liver itself.

For sheep only, in addition to the portions of fat and organs listed above, the worshiper who offered the sacrifice was to include all the fat of the sheep, wherever it was found, but especially the fatty tail. This term refers to the choice portion of fat attached to the short tail of the sheep, which was to be removed in one piece near the end of the spine. (See 3:9.) These portions of fat were to be carefully removed by the person offering the sacrifice and presented to the priest to be burned on the altar. It may be that your language does not have specific terms for these portions of fat. If that is the case, consider using general expressions.

Ritual action

This chapter, much like Leviticus 1, includes several ritual actions that are suggestive of deeper theological actions and must be understood in order to properly translate the chapter. They include:

1. the laying of hands on an animal

2. the splashing and sprinkling of blood and

3. the act of burning a sacrifice in a way that causes smoke to go up.

4. Laying hands on the animal

This chapter features the symbolic act of laying one’s hands on the head of the sacrificial animal. This action is linked to the acceptance of the animal as an appropriate sacrifice on the individual’s behalf. (See 1:4.) As a symbolic act, the laying of hands apparently identifies the individual with the animal he is offering. The implication seems to be that the person is ritually placing his sins on the sacrificial animal so that God will forgive the sins when the animal is sacrificed.

2. Splashing and sprinkling blood

The ritual action of splashing the blood of the animal on the altar is frequent in animal sacrifices in Leviticus. In Chapter 3, as in Chapter 1, the blood of the animal is collected and applied via splattering or splashing to the sides of the altar upon which the burnt offering is placed. (See 1:5, 1:11 and 1:15.) In Chapter 1 and Chapter 3, the blood appears to have been splashed or splattered against the side of the altar. (See 1:5, 1:11, and 3:2, 3:8, and 3:13.) In chapters 4, 5, and 6, the blood will be sprinkled. (See 4:6, 4:17, 5:9, and 6:24.) It may be put on the horns of the altar or poured out at the base of the altar.(See 4:7, 4:18, 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34.) In the case of birds, the blood would be drained out or squeezed out on either the side of the altar or on the base of the altar. (See 1:15 and 5:9.) The blood was the life of the animal. (See 17:11.) It was given by God to purify ritually and to remove sin. In this chapter, the blood acts as a ritual detergent or soap with the special ability to cleanse people, sacred objects, and sacred spaces from the impurity of sin.

3. Burning a sacrifice in a way that makes smoke rise

As in Leviticus 1, the language of causing the sacrifice “to become smoke on the altar” pictures the sacrifice as being converted to smoke by the fire of the altar. Then the smoke would arise to Yahweh in heaven, where he would smell the pleasant aroma of the burning sacrifice. As such, the pleasant smell was either a sign that Yahweh approved the sacrifice and would atone for the individual’s sins and forgive him, or it functioned as a necessary requirement for the acceptance of the individual’s offering. Either way, this term is common in Leviticus but difficult to translate. If your language has a verb that means to turn something into smoke through fire, consider using it here.

Consuming blood or fat

Leviticus 3:17 prohibits any Israelite, regardless of age or location, from eating any fat or blood of any animal. Because the blood contained the life of the animal, it had the special ability to cleanse people, sacred objects, or sacred space from the impurity caused by sin. As such, Yahweh forbade the eating of any animal blood. (See (7:26–27, (17:10–14, and (19:26.) While the reason for forbidding the consumption of fat is not given in this chapter, it is presumed that these choice portions of rich fat were especially coveted and so belonged exclusively to Yahweh.

Important Figures of Speech in This Chapter

This chapter includes two primary figures of speech that may prove difficult to translate but are important to understanding the chapter. They include:

1. the phrase “to the face of the tent of meeting” and

2. the phrase “the sons of Aaron.”

“To the face of the tent of meeting”

As with the expression “the face of Yahweh,” the expression “to the face of the tent of meeting” (See 3:2.) simply means “before the sacred tent,” that is, directly in front of the interior tent in the courtyard of the sacred tent. If your language has a similar idiomatic expression, consider using it wherever this phrase occurs. However, if this expression would not be natural in your language, consider translating the expression in this chapter simply as “before the tent of meeting” or as “in front of the tent of meeting.”

“The sons of Aaron”

Throughout Leviticus, but especially in this chapter, the priests are referred to by the expression “the sons of Aaron.” Occasionally, the expression is “the sons of Aaron, the priests” (as in 3:2), but often the priests are simply called “the sons of Aaron.” (See 3:5, 3:8, and 3:13.) As the Introduction to Leviticus discusses, at the time when Yahweh spoke to Moses from the tent of meeting, the priests literally were the sons of Aaron. But the laws in the book also applied to future generations, when the term “sons” would be a way of referring to the priests as Aaron’s descendants (with the exception of Leviticus chapters 8–10). Here and throughout the book, if it would be clearer in your language, in your translation you could generally use the term “descendants,” which would apply to both the original priests and their successors.

Other Possible Translation Difficulties in This Chapter

In addition to these important figures of speech, this chapter features several translation difficulties, including:

1. the unclear referent of masculine pronouns

2. the switching between second and third-person address

3. the use of a verb and a related noun (cognate-accusatives)

4. the use of a future form to indicate a request or command

5. the use of specific, technical sacrificial language.

The referent of the masculine pronouns

Throughout this chapter, the author of Leviticus uses a third-person pronoun to refer to both the individual who offers the sacrifices and to the priest who performs the sacrifice. As such, it is often difficult (but not impossible) to infer which party performs which actions. In general, the sacrifice is presented to the priest, but the individual who presents the sacrifice is responsible for killing, properly butchering, and presenting the portions of the sacrificial animal to the priest, who will then arrange them on the altar’s fire. The UST will indicate which party is the apparent referent of the pronoun.

Second and third-person address

Chapters 1 through 7 are written as a direct address to the people of God through Moses. Because in Chapter 3 the pronouns “his” and “he” refer to the person bringing an offering to Yahweh, those terms can be translated in the second person, as done in 1:2 and as the UST models, or they can be translated in the third person, as the ULT models. In the present chapter, with the exception of the second-person plural forms in the last verse (3:17), the author of Leviticus consistently uses third-person forms to refer to the individual who offers the sacrifices described. We recommend that you continue to use whichever forms and pronouns you have been using in the previous two chapters.

The use of a verb with a related noun (Cognate-accusatives)

For emphasis, the author of Leviticus often uses a verb with a related noun. In this chapter, the verb “to present” is related to the noun translated as “offering.” (See 3:1–14.) If your language can repeat words for emphasis, it would be appropriate in this context to repeat these words in a similar manner.

The use of a future form to indicate a request or command\r

The writer of Leviticus will often use the future form “you shall” to give an instruction or command. If it would be helpful in your language, you could translate these words using a command or instruction form.\r

\r

The use of specific, technical sacrificial terminology\r

See above the sections on “Fat and the innards” and “Ritual action.”

Leviticus 4 Chapter Introduction

Structure and Formatting

This chapter begins by reintroducing the narrative framing that was first used at the beginning of the book (“And Yahweh spoke to Moses … ”). As such, Leviticus 4:1–5:13 should be taken as a discrete unit that is nonetheless connected to Leviticus 1–3 within the unit of Leviticus 1–7.

The present chapter, Leviticus 4, gives instructions on how to offer a sacrifice that addresses the guilt incurred by unintentional sins. This sacrifice is called a purification offering because of its ability to purify sacred space and sacred objects that are dedicated to Yahweh from the impurities generated by sin. The structure of Chapter 4 is made up of four hypothetical scenarios in which a person would be required to offer this particular sacrifice, enumerated according to which individual or group has committed the sin:

1. the high priest (4:3–12)

2. the community as a whole (4:13–21)

3. a leader in the community (4:22–26)

4. an ordinary individual member of the community (4:27–35).

Structurally, the whole of 4:1–5:13 could be visually represented as follows:

The Sin Offering (4:1–5:13)

1. Sin Offerings for Unintentional Sins (4:1–35)

   1. scenario #1: The High Priest (4:3–12)

   2. scenario #2: The Community (4:13–21)

   3. scenario #3: A Leader (4:22–26)

   4. scenario #4: An Individual (4:27–35)

2. The Graduated Sin Offering

   1. scenario #1: Guilt due to the failure to testify in court (5:1)

   2. scenario #2: Guilt due to unintentional contact with an unclean animal (5:2) or unintentional contact with human uncleanness (5:3)

   3. scenario #3: Guilt due to the failure to fulfill a rashly spoken vow (5:4)

   4. the procedure for offering a purification offering (5:5–13)

Because the chapter offers instructions for hypothetical situations where the purification offering is required, the instructions in Chapter 4 offer a detailed outline of the procedure for the sacrifice. The instructed steps include:

1. presenting a perfect animal to the priest (4:3, 14)

   1. for the high priest, a young bull (4:3)

   2. for the community, a young bull (4:13)

   3. for the leader, a male goat (4:23)

   4. for the individual, a male goat (4:28) or a female sheep (4:32)

2. bringing the animal to the tent of meeting (4:4, 14, 23, 28, 32)

3. laying hands on the animal (4:4, 15, 24, 29, 33)

4. killing the animal (4:4, 15, 24, 29, 33)

5. bringing the blood into the tent of meeting (4:5, 16)

6. sprinkling the blood seven times before Yahweh towards the curtain (4:6, 17)

7. putting some blood on each of the four horns of an altar (4:7, 18, 25, 30, 34)

   1. for the high priest and the community, the blood is applied to the horns of the incense altar (4:7, 18)

   2. for the leader and the individual, the blood is applied to the horns of the burnt offering altar (4:25, 30, 34)

8. pouring the rest of the blood out on the base of the burnt offering altar (4:8, 18, 25, 30, 34)

   9. properly butchering the animal into the fat portions (4:9–10, 19-20, 26, 31, 35)

   10. burning the fat portions and creating the pleasant-smelling smoke (4:10, 19-20, 26, 31, 35)

   11. bringing the rest of the sacrificed animal outside the camp to burn it (4:11–12, 21)

It should be noted that every step of this procedure is not repeated for every scenario covered by Leviticus 4. However, because the first two scenarios include a full description of each step, it is reasonable to assume that each scenario required the same procedure, even if a particular action is not included in the description of the sacrificial process.

Religious and Cultural Concepts in This Chapter

Several special concepts are crucial for understanding this chapter. They include:

1. several instances of technical sacrificial terminology, especially the purification offering itself and the notion of mistakes or unintentional sins

2. the three-fold use of the term “guilt”

3. the symbolic action of sprinkling or applying blood

4. the location and purposes of the various altars and sacred objects such as the curtain

5. the grounds for removing the portions of the sacrifice that are not burned as sacrifices to Yahweh.

Sacrificial terminology

First, several words or phrases in this chapter have a specialized meaning in the context of sacrifice. They include 1) the purification offering itself and 2) the concept of “unintentional sins.”

1) The purification offering

This chapter offers instructions for how and when to offer a purification offering, also called a “sin offering” due to the term’s association with the word translated as “sin.” The primary purpose of the purification offering was, as the name suggests, to purify or cleanse the sanctuary and the sacred items dedicated to Yahweh from the impurity brought about by sin, even unintentional sin (as is the case in this chapter). Because of its intended purpose, the offering features the application of blood on the altar in a way that is distinct from the other sacrifices described in Leviticus 1–7 (as explained below). The purification offering not only purified or cleansed these items and spaces that had been defiled by the impurity of sin but also provided atonement and forgiveness to the individual or community who offered it. See the Book Introduction for more information.

2) The mistake or the unintentional sin

The noun translated as “mistake” (4:2, 4:22, and 4:27 and the use of the phrase “by mistake”) is related to the verb translated as “to err mistakenly.” (See 4:13.) These terms refer to actions by which a person unintentionally does something that incurs guilt before Yahweh. Even while they are unintentional, the actions are still considered to be sins, and so they actively defile the sanctuary and the sacred items. (See 4:1, 4:3, 4:22, and 4:27–28.) Specifically, these actions are violations of Yahweh’s commandments, whether positive instructions or negative injunctions. (See the note on the phrase “to sin … from any of the commands of Yahweh which will not be done” in 4:2, 4:13, 4:22, and 4:27.) The unintentional nature of these actions is emphasized by the descriptions given in 4:13 and 4:23. Here it is emphasized that the purification offering is required once the individual or group becomes aware of the sinful actions. The awareness of unintentional sins leads to “guilt” (see below). If your language has a verb and a related noun that refers to an unintentional wrongdoing or mistake as described here, consider using it in the contexts where these terms appear.

Guilt

In Chapter 4, the author of Leviticus uses the verb “to become guilty” and the related abstract noun “guilt.” (See 4:3, 4:13, 4:22, and 4:27.) These terms refer to either the internal feeling of having done wrong, or to a legal state of needing to provide restitution for one’s actions, or perhaps both. If your language uses different terms for these, consider using them both in these contexts where the terms appear.

Ritual Action

The ritual action of splashing or sprinkling the blood of the animal on the altar is frequent in animal sacrifices in Leviticus. The laws regarding the purification offering (which begin in the present chapter) are unique in the prominence of blood required in the sacrifice. In Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 the blood is “splashed” or “splattered” against the side of the altar. (See 1:5, 1:11, 3:2, 3:8, and 3:13.) In 5 and 6, the blood is “sprinkled” towards the curtain that divided the courtyard of the tent of meeting from the Holy of Holies. (See 4:6, 4:17, 5:9, and 6:24.) There it is “put” on the horns of either the incense altar or the altar of the burnt offerings or “poured out” at the base of the altar of burnt offerings. (See 4:7, 4:18, 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34.) In the case of birds, the blood is “drained out” or “squeezed out” on either the side of the altar or on the base of the altar. (See 1:15 and 5:9.) As explained in previous chapters, the blood, being the life of the animal (17:11), was given by God to ritually purify, cleanse, and remove the defiling impurity brought about by the presence of sin, even unintentional sin. In this chapter, the blood acts as a ritual detergent or soap with the special ability to cleanse sacred objects and sacred spaces from the impurity of sin.

Fat and Internal Organs

In ancient times, the fat of an animal was considered the best part of the animal to eat. Therefore, certain fat portions of an animal that was sacrificed belonged exclusively to Yahweh. These were never to be eaten but rather were to be offered on the fire and converted into pleasant-smelling smoke that rose to Yahweh in heaven. As 4:10, 4:31, and 4:35 make clear, the fat portions and internal organs that were to be removed for burning in the purification offering are the same as those offered in the peace offerings. (See 3:3­–4, 3:9­–10, and 3:14–15 and the Introduction to chapter 3 for more information.) These portions of fat were to be carefully removed by the person offering the sacrifice and presented to the priest to be burned on the altar. It may be that your language does not have specific terms for these portions of fat. If that is the case, consider using general expressions. Potential alternate translations for these phrases and terms will be offered in the notes.

The “Clean Place” (4:12)

In Chapter 4 Yahweh instructs the people that the portions of the sacrificial animal that are not burned completely on the altar for a purification offering must be brought outside the camp of the people to a clean place (4:12 and 4:21). The adjective translated as “clean” does not refer to a location that is physically free of dirt (as one might describe a freshly washed dish). Rather in the context of sacrifices, the word “clean” refers to a person, animal, or object that has been kept clean from the defiling presence of sin and is fit to be used for sacred purposes or to enter into sacred space. Portions of an animal that were used in sacrifices to purify a person, place, or object from the impurity of sins may have been considered to absorb the defiling sin. As such, contact with these portions, once they had absorbed the impurity brought about by sin, may have been thought to make an individual impure or ceremonially unclean. Consequently, the location where the rest of the sacrificial animal was burned needed to be ceremonially clean in this way so that the potentially defiling presence of the sacrificial animal’s corpse could be properly disposed of and so that the camp itself did not become ceremonially unclean by virtue of its proximity to an ‘unclean’ location.

The various altars and the sacred curtain

The present chapter describes sacred objects and locations that are relevant to the purification offering. Properly understanding the geography and purpose of these items and locations is crucial for properly understanding this chapter. First, the chapter refers to the entrance to the tent of meeting, where the animal to be sacrificed would be presented, hands would be laid on it, and the animal would be killed. (See 4:3–4, 4:14–15, and 4:24–33.) The blood of the animal was then brought into the tent of meeting, into the courtyard that resided inside the outer partitions of the tent. (See 4:5, 4:16, 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34.) Once inside the courtyard, the priest would proceed to the curtain which divided the inner courtyard from the Holy of Holies, inside which Yahweh resided over the wings of the cherubim on the box of the covenant. The priest would dip his finger in the blood and “sprinkle” the blood seven times in the direction of that sacred curtain, which was also in the direction of Yahweh’s dwelling place among the Israelites. (See 4:6, 4:17, and 4:25.)

In two cases (when the high priest or the whole community unintentionally sins), the priest would then apply blood to the four horns at the corners of the incense altar and possibly sprinkle it seven times toward the curtain, before pouring the rest of the blood out at the base of the altar of burnt offerings. (See 4:5, 4:16, 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34.) In the case of a leader of the community and an ordinary individual’s unintentional sin, the priest would dip his finger in the blood of the animal and apply it to the four horns of the corners of the altar of burnt offerings before pouring out the rest of the blood at the base of the same altar, as in the other cases. (See 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34.) No explanation is given for this distinction. The altar of the burnt offering is described as being “at the entrance to the tent of meeting,” (see1:5, 4:7, and 4:18) whereas the incense altar is only ambiguously located “to the face of Yahweh in the tent of meeting.” (See 4:7.) As such, the precise location of the incense altar is debated. This is the geography of the tent of meeting as is relevant for Leviticus 4.

Disposing of the portions of the sacrifice that are not burned

As was briefly mentioned above, in Chapter 4, Yahweh instructs the people that the portions of the sacrificial animal that are not burned completely on the altar for a purification offering must be brought outside the camp of the people to a “clean place” in (4:12 and 4:21). These portions of the sacrifice included the skin, head, legs, innards (probably referring specifically to the intestines and stomach), and any feces of the animal. (See 4:11–12 and also 4:20.) Because these parts of the animal were neither suitable to be burned on the altar as a sacrifice to Yahweh or suitable for eating, they had to be disposed of properly. However, if ancient Israel agreed with her neighboring peoples, the people may have conceived of the sacrificial animal absorbing, so to speak, the impurities brought about by the defiling presence of sin. As such, contact with these portions, once they had absorbed the impurity brought about by sin, may have been thought to make an individual impure or ceremonially unclean. Consequently, the location where the rest of the sacrificial animal was burned needed to be ceremonially clean so that the potentially defiling presence of the sacrificial animal’s corpse could be properly disposed of and so that the camp itself did not become ceremonially unclean by virtue of its proximity to an ‘unclean’ location. However, this action could not have been performed by the priest making the sacrifice, because disposing of the animal in this way could potentially cause the priest to become impure, temporarily preventing his ability to serve as a priest to Yahweh in the tent of meeting. Rather, the act of properly disposing of the animal and burning it must have been performed by another, unspecified Israelite.

Important Figures of Speech in This Chapter

This chapter includes three primary figures of speech that may prove difficult to translate but are important to understanding the chapter. They include 1) the phrase “to the face of the tent of meeting,” 2) the expression “to sins … from any of the commands of Yahweh, which will not be done,” and 3) the phrase “the sons of Aaron.”

“To the face of … ”

As with the expression “to the face of Yahweh,” the expression “to the face of the tent of meeting” simply means “before” the tent of meeting. (4:14) That is, it refers to the location directly in front of the interior tent, in its courtyard. Likewise, the similar expression “the face of the curtain” simply means “the front of” the sacred curtain or perhaps “in the direction of” the curtain. (See 4:06 and 4:17.) If your language has a similar idiomatic expression, consider using it wherever this phrase occurs. However, if this expression would not be natural in your language, consider translating the expression in this chapter simply as “before the tent of meeting” or as “in front of the tent of meeting” in the first case and as “the front of the curtain” or as “toward the curtain” in the second case.

The expression “to sin … from any of the commands of Yahweh which will not be done”

Several times in this chapter, the author of Leviticus uses the expression “commands of Yahweh which will not be done” to refer to the commands of Yahweh against doing certain actions. (See 4:02, 4:13, 4:22, 4:27.) The expression refers to those commandments that proscribe certain actions or behaviors (called “negative commands”). As the expression makes clear, they have done something that Yahweh has instructed them not to do, performing an action that was forbidden. As such, their actions require restitution and have defiled the sacred space where Yahweh resided among the Israelites and the sacred items that were dedicated to him. In short, their unintentional sin has brought about a scenario in which a purification offering is required.

The expression “to lift up”

Three times in this chapter, the author of Leviticus uses the expression “to lift up” to refer to the process of removing fat from an animal that has been killed to be a sacrifice to Yahweh. (See 4:8, 4:10, and 4:19.) If your language has a similar idiom to refer to the actions by which one butchers an animal and removes its fat, consider using it in the places where the expression occurs. If not, consider using a generic expression, as the alternate translations provided by the relevant notes will demonstrate.

“The anointed priest”

Three times in Chapter 4, the author of Leviticus uses the expression “the anointed priest” to refer to the high priest. (See 4:3, 4:5, and 4:16.) This expression indicates that the high priest, as the chief leader of the priesthood, has been especially anointed and dedicated for service as a priest to Yahweh and thus has special privileges and responsibilities befitting his position. The use of the word “anointed” refers to the practice of dripping olive oil on priests to dedicate them to Yahweh. If this expression would be unclear or unnatural in your language, consider simply translating the phrase as “the high priest.”

To “burn in a way that makes smoke go up”

As in the previous chapters, the language of “causing” the sacrifice “to become smoke on the altar” pictures the sacrifice as being converted to smoke by the fire of the altar and arising to Yahweh in heaven, where he would smell the pleasant aroma of the burning sacrifice. (See 4:10, 4:19, 4:26, 4:31, and 4:35.) As such, the pleasant smell was either a sign that Yahweh approved the sacrifice and would atone for the individual’s sins and forgive him or functioned as a necessary requirement for the acceptance of the individual’s offering. Either way, this term is common in Leviticus but difficult to translate cleanly. If your language has a verb that means “to turn something into smoke through fire,” consider using it here.

Other Possible Translation Difficulties in This Chapter

In addition to these important figures of speech, this chapter features several translation difficulties, including:

1. the unclear referent of masculine pronouns

2. the switching between second and third-person address

3. the use of a verb and a related noun (cognate-accusatives)

4. the use of a future form to indicate a request or command

5. the use of specific, technical sacrificial language.

The referent of the masculine pronouns

Throughout this chapter, the author of Leviticus uses a third-person pronoun to refer to both the individual who offers the sacrifices and to the priest who performs the sacrifice. As such, it is often difficult (but not impossible) to infer which party performs which actions. In general, the sacrifice is presented to the priest, but the individual who presents the sacrifice is responsible for killing, properly butchering, and presenting the portions of the sacrificial animal to the priest, who will then arrange them on the altar’s fire. The UST will indicate which party is the apparent referent of the pronoun.

Second and third-person address

The entirety of chapters 1 through 7 are written as direct address to the people of God through Moses. Because in this chapter the pronouns “his” and “he” refer to the person bringing an offering to Yahweh, those terms can be translated in the second person as it is in 1:2 and as the UST models, or they can be translated in the third person, as the ULT models. In the present chapter, the author of Leviticus consistently uses third-person forms to refer to the individual who offers the sacrifices described. Despite this, we recommend that you continue to use whichever forms and pronouns you have been using in the previous two chapters, even if that means continuing to use second-person forms.

The use of a verb with a related noun (Cognate-accusatives)

For emphasis, the author of Leviticus often uses a verb with a related noun. In this chapter, the verb “to present” is used with the related noun that is translated as “offering,” just as the verb “to sin” is used with the related noun that is translated as “sin.” (See 3:1, 4:3, 4:14, 4:23, 4:28, and 4:35.) If your language can repeat words for emphasis, it would be appropriate in this context to repeat these words in a similar manner.

The use of a future form to indicate a request or command

The writer of Leviticus will often use the future form “you shall” to give an instruction or command. If it would be helpful in your language, you could translate these words using a command or instruction form.

The use of specific, technical sacrificial terminology

See above the sections on “Sacrificial terminology” and “Ritual action.”

Leviticus 5 Chapter Introduction

Structure and Formatting

As discussed in the Leviticus 4 Chapter Introduction, because of the narrative framings in 4:1 and 5:14, Leviticus 4:1–5:12 should be taken as a discrete unit that is nonetheless connected to Leviticus 1–3 within the unit of Leviticus 1–7.

The word “And” in the first verse of Chapter 5 indicates that the following material should be read in continuity from Chapter 4. That being said, the phrase “And a person, when he sins” (5:1) is used to start a new series of hypothetical scenarios (as in 2:1) in which a person becomes guilty and is in need of a sacrifice to atone for their sin. In 5:1–13, the individual’s guilt requires him to offer a purification offering, as was the case in Chapter 4.

However, because of the reintroduction of the narrative framing where Yahweh speaks to Moses (see 5:14), the scenarios covered in 5:14–19 and continuing into 6:1–7 cover cases where the individual’s guilt requires him to offer a guilt offering. Whereas the purification offering was explained in the introduction to the previous chapter, the guilt offering is described below. The basic structure of this chapter is outlined as follows:

1. The Sin Offering (4:1–5:13)

   1. scenario #1: guilt due to the failure to testify in court (5:1)

   2. scenario #2: guilt due to unintentional contact with an unclean animal (5:2) or unintentional contact with human uncleanness (5:3)

   3. scenario #3: guilt due to the failure to fulfill a rashly spoken vow (5:4)

   4. the procedure for offering a Purification Offering (5:5–13)

2. The Guilt Offering (5:14–6:7)

   1. scenario #1: a person breaks Yahweh’s commandments regarding holy objects

   2. scenario #2: a person unintentionally breaks one of Yahweh’s commandments (5:17–19)

Religious and Cultural Concepts in This Chapter

Several special concepts are crucial for understanding this chapter. They include 1) several instances of technical sacrificial terminology, especially the concept of “unclean,” the two-fold use of “guilt,” the guilt offering itself, and the concept of atonement, 2) the special provision of sacrifices accessible for the poor, and 3) instances of symbolic action, especially the sprinkling and application of blood.

Sacrificial terminology

First, several words or phrases in this chapter have a specialized meaning in the context of sacrifice. They include 1) the concept of “unclean” (the opposite of “clean” explained in the introduction to the previous chapter), 2) the two-fold use of the word “guilt,” and 3) the guilt offering itself, which occupies the instructions of the second half of this chapter.

**1) Unclean

The second scenario covered in this chapter by which someone incurs guilt and is therefore required to offer a purification offering (see 5:2­–3) involves a situation in which someone touches something unclean (whether intentionally or unintentionally). For an object or body to be unclean means that it is unfit to enter into holy space or touch a holy object. In ancient Israel, this impurity was seen to pollute the holy space where Yahweh lived among the Israelites and could desecrate the sacred items that were consecrated to him. Consequently, anything impure or unclean was not allowed to enter sacred space or to touch anything clean. Furthermore, coming into contact with anything considered unclean or anything that had become unclean would result in the individual becoming unclean himself. (See also 11:24–25.) In Leviticus 5:2–3, unclean bodies that would make an individual unclean upon contact include the unclean dead body of a wild animal or a domesticated animal (5:2), the dead body of an unclean “swarming” or “creeping” animal (5:2), or the “uncleanness of a man” (5:3), that is, uncleanness that comes from a human source. A list of unclean animals is provided in 11:1–8, 11:19–23, and 11:26–31. Situations in which a person can become unclean through other means (perhaps the “uncleanness of a man” mentioned in 5:3) are listed in 11:32–38. The command not to eat or touch an unclean animal or the carcass of any animal (which has become unclean because it is dead) is reiterated in 11:39–47. Other ways in which a person could become unclean include birthing a child (see 12:1–8: a woman is unclean for seven days if she births a male and for fourteen days if she births a female), having a certain infection of the skin (see 13:1–3, 13: 7–8, 13:9–17, 13:18–23, and 13:24–46), touching a dead body (see 22:4), having a bodily secretion or discharge (15:1–3) including seminal emissions (15:16–18) and menstruation (15:19–27), and having contact with unclean furniture and beds (see 15:4–12). Garments with traces of skin diseases (see 13:47–59) or houses that have traces of skin diseases in the walls (see 14:33–53) are likewise unclean. The danger of being unclean in holy space is reiterated in 15:31–33, in which Yahweh warns that they must be careful to remain clean, lest they pollute the sanctuary with their uncleanness and die. By distinguishing between clean and unclean animals in this manner, Yahweh promises the people that they will remain the holy people of God; people who are dedicated and set apart for him. (See 20:22–26.)

**2) The two-fold use of the word “guilt”

In this chapter, the word translated as “guilt” is used in two separate senses. In one sense, it refers to both the internal feeling of having committed wrongdoing and the legal state of being required to provide restitution for that wrongdoing, as explained in the introduction to the previous chapter. This sense uses both the verb “to become guilty” and the abstract noun “guilt.” The second sense uses the abstract noun “guilt” to refer to the payment or restitution that a person offers to atone for their sins when they realize they have committed wrongdoing. Examples of this are seen in 5:6–7, 5:15, and 5:25, in which an individual or community is instructed to “bring their guilt” to Yahweh (that is, to the tent of meeting where Yahweh lived among the Israelites). This expression does not mean to bring their feelings of guilt to Yahweh but to bring the penalty for their guilt, that is, the animal required by the sacrifice to atone for their sin. This second sense is once used in full in 5:6 (“And he will bring his guilt to Yahweh for his sin that he sinned”) and twice in an elided, shortened form. (See 5:7, “then he will bring his guilt that he sinned.” See also 5:11, “then he will bring his offering that he sinned”.)

**3) The guilt offering

Closely related to the sin offering, in which a person offered a sacrifice to cleanse or purify sacred space from the defiling impurity generated by unintentional sin, the guilt offering is a special sacrifice designed to restore and make restitution for sacred items that had become desecrated due to the defiling presence of an individual’s sin. In one possible scenario, an individual trespasses a trespass, that is, he breaks one of Yahweh’s commandments, by unintentionally sinning with regard to any holy object that has been dedicated for exclusive use in service to Yahweh (see 5:15–16). The second scenario addressed by this chapter covers any way by which a person unintentionally sins (and, presumably, defiles a sacred object, see 5:17–19). These scenarios required that the individual atone for their guilt in the form of an animal sacrifice (specifically, a male goat). He must provide restitution for the item that their sin desecrated, paying in the form of a carefully calculated amount of silver that had been weighed according to the measurements for silver that were used by the priests who handled the finances of the tent of meeting. In this way, the sacrifice both restored the individual to a right relationship with Yahweh through atoning for his sins and forgiving his guilt, and it also provided the means by which the sacred items in the tent of meeting could be reconsecrated, restored, or replaced.

Sacrifices for the poor

This chapter explains that Yahweh made special provisions for individuals who could not afford costly purification offerings (see 5:7–13). The author of Leviticus uses the expression “if his hand does not touch enough flock animals” (5:7) to describe an individual who cannot afford to offer their own bovine or flock animal or purchase others (as Chapter 4 prescribes). Likewise, the author of Leviticus uses a related expression (“if his hand does not reach” (5:11) to describe an individual who cannot afford the four birds that could replace the expensive domesticated animals. Yahweh allows such individuals who cannot afford the bovine of flock animals prescribed for the purification offering in Chapter 4 to offer two turtledoves and two pigeons, bringing two of the birds for a purification offering and the other two for a burnt offering (see 5:7–10). However, if the individual cannot afford the four birds, they are allowed to bring a set amount of raw wheat flour as an acceptable substitute for the animal sacrifice (see 5:11–13). These provisions demonstrate the grace of God, who makes the forgiveness and restoration of relationship with God that was provided through the sacrifices available to everyone, without excluding those who do not have the means to offer expensive sacrifices.

Restoring the cost of a sacred item with money

Because guilt offerings were designed to reconsecrate and restore sacred space and sacred items that were dedicated exclusively to Yahweh, the guilt offering required not only an animal sacrifice but also the restitution of the monetary value of whatever sacred item became defiled and unclean through the impurity brought about by the sin of the individual, whether intentional or unintentional. This monetary value was calculated in two ways. First, the value of the animal sacrifice (usually a male goat, see 5:15 and 5:18) would be calculated according to the measurements for silver used by the priests who operated the finances of the sanctuary. This is expressed by the phrase “in your valuation, silver shekels, in the shekel of the holy place” (5:15, see also the expression “in your valuation” in 5:18). Second, the individual is required to calculate the monetary value of whatever sacred item had been desecrated or defiled by their sin and bring that amount, plus one-fifth of that value, to the priests in the form of silver, again (presumably) calculated according to the measurements for silver used by the priests who operated the finances of the sanctuary. (See 5:16.) This process results in the restitution of 120% of the monetary value of whatever had been defiled, along with the monetary value of the male goat that was sacrificed for the guilt offering. In this way, the individual provided for the replacement of the object that their sin desecrated.

Ritual action

This chapter, much like Leviticus 1, includes the ritual action of splashing or sprinkling the blood of the animal on the altar. Neither the laws regarding the purification offering (which continue in the present chapter from the previous chapter) nor the laws regarding the guilt offering (5:14–19) are unique in the lack of mentions of blood. This, however, does not mean that blood was unimportant in the sacrificial process. Whereas in Leviticus 1 and 3, the blood is “splashed” or “splattered” against the side of the altar (see 1:5, 1:11, 3:2, 3:8, and 3:13), Leviticus 4 makes it clear that the purification offering required that the blood would be “sprinkled” towards the curtain that divided the courtyard of the tent of meeting from the Holy of Holies (see 4:6 and 4:17), “put” on the horns of either the incense altar or the altar of the burnt offerings (see 4:7, 4:18, 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34), or “poured out” at the base of the altar of burnt offerings (see 4:7, 4:18, 4:25, 4:30, and 4:34). In the case of birds, the blood is “drained out” or “squeezed out” on either the side of the altar (see 1:15) or on the base of the altar (see 5:9). This was likely the case in the animal sacrifices described in Leviticus 5. As explained in previous chapters, the blood, being the life of the animal (see 17:11), was given by God to ritually purify, cleanse, and remove the defiling impurity brought about by the presence of sin, even unintentional sin. In this chapter, the blood acts as a ritual detergent or soap with the special ability to cleanse sacred objects and sacred spaces from the impurity of sin.

Important Figures of Speech in This Chapter

This chapter includes several figures of speech that may prove difficult to translate but are important to understanding the chapter.

“If his hand does not touch” or “If his hand does not reach”

As previously discussed, the author of Leviticus uses the expression “if his hand does not touch enough flock animals” (5:7) to describe an individual who cannot afford to offer their own bovine or flock animal or purchase others (as Leviticus 4 prescribes). Likewise, the author of Leviticus uses a related expression, “if his hand does not reach,” (5:11) to describe an individual who cannot afford the four birds that could replace the expensive domesticated animals. If such an expression would not be clear in your language, use whatever expression would be clearest to your readers. Alternate translations will be provided in the following notes where the expressions appear.

Other Possible Translation Difficulties in This Chapter

In addition to these important figures of speech, this chapter features several translation difficulties, including:

1. the unclear referent of masculine pronouns

2. the switching between second and third-person address

3. the use of a verb and a related noun (cognate-accusatives)

4. the use of a future form to indicate a request or command

5. the use of specific, technical sacrificial language.

The referent of the masculine pronouns

Throughout this chapter, the author of Leviticus uses a third-person pronoun to refer to both the individual who offers the sacrifices and to “the priest” who performs the sacrifice. As such, it is often difficult (but not impossible) to infer which party performs which actions. In general, the sacrifice is presented to the priest, but the individual who presents the sacrifice is responsible for killing, properly butchering, and presenting the portions of the sacrificial animal to the priest, who will then arrange them on the altar’s fire. The UST will indicate which party is the apparent referent of the pronoun.

Second and third-person address

All of Leviticus 1 through 7 is written as direct address to the people of God through Moses. Because in this chapter the words “his” and “he” refer to the person bringing an offering to Yahweh, those terms can be translated in the second person as it is in 1:2 and as the UST models or they can be translated in the third person, as the ULT models. In the present chapter, the author of Leviticus consistently uses third-person forms to refer to the individual who offers the sacrifices described. Despite this, we recommend that you continue to use whichever forms and pronouns you have been using in the previous two chapters, even if that means continuing to use second-person forms.

The use of a verb with a related noun (cognate-accusatives)

For emphasis, the author of Leviticus often uses a verb with a related noun. In this chapter, several expressions follow this pattern, including the expression “the sin that he sinned” (see 5:6, 5:10, and 5:13), the expression “the uncleanness that a person becomes unclean with it” (5:3), the expression “to grab … the fullness of a handful” (5:12), the expression “to trespass a trespass” (5:18), and the expression “the mistake that he mistook” (5:18). If your language can repeat words for emphasis, it would be appropriate in this context to repeat the words in these expressions in a similar manner whenever the relevant expressions occur.

The use of a future form to indicate a request or command

The writer of Leviticus will often use the future form “you shall” to give an instruction or command. If it would be helpful in your language, you could translate these words using a command or instruction form.

The use of specific, technical sacrificial terminology

See above the sections on “Sacrificial terminology” and “Ritual actions.”